This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
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Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
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Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, University of West Attica , Athens , Greece
Recent advances in 3D reconstruction techniques, including Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), SLAM-based systems, and mobile LiDAR, have improved heritage documentation practices. This study evaluates the geometric accuracy of Leica BLK360, GeoSLAM ZEB-REVO, FJD TRION™ S1, and iPhone 12 Pro using a UNESCO-listed Byzantine Bath monument, with FARO Focus 3D as the reference dataset. Accuracy was assessed through C2C and M3C2 analyses on a 3 × 3 m floor subset and two vertical sections. Floor results showed mean deviations of 4.7–25 mm, with the iPhone 12 Pro yielding the lowest z-axis mean error, while BLK360 produced the most stable dataset. Section analysis indicated mean differences of 8–22 mm, with BLK360 demonstrating the closest agreement to reference data. Overall, all systems achieved centimeter-level accuracy, with mean deviations ranging from 4.7 mm to 25 mm, while the standard deviation of distances reached up to approximately 30 mm depending on the instrument and the analysed geometry.
3D Modelling, LiDAR, SLAM, Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Point Cloud Comparison, Cultural Heritage
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